The Blame Game

Introduction

In every chapter of U.S. history, immigrants and people of color unfairly suffered blame for our nation’s economic problems and societal ills. Our nation’s leaders have time and again played into existing narrative frames that consolidate political support and public opinion against a common “enemy.” Scapegoating — the act of unfairly blaming a group for societal misfortunes — is a political strategy that wins votes by causing animus and harm against marginalized communities.

Over the last 250 years, the target of scapegoating in the United States has moved from one community of color to another, resulting in devastating violence and exclusionary policies. Chinese laborers bore the blame for declining wages in the American West in the late 1800s, leading to at least 168 communities driving out their Chinese populations with threats, harassment, violence, and prohibitions on Chinese immigration in most cases until 1943.2 During the Great Depression, the American government found fault with Mexican Americans for the country’s economic troubles, leading to the deportation of an estimated 500,000 Mexican Americans — half of whom were U.S. citizens.3 And from enslavement until present day, Black people have been scapegoated for crimes of violence and poverty – leading to wrongful accusations, arrests, and police killings.

Since March 19, 2020, Stop AAPI Hate has recorded 2,255 incidents with language that scapegoats Asians and Asian Americans — wrongfully blaming them for COVID-19, espionage on behalf of the Chinese Communist Party, or economic insecurity.7 These incidents represent one in five (20%) of the 11,467 hate incidents targeting Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) submitted to our reporting system. This number is just the tip of the iceberg; a national survey estimated at least three million AAPIs experienced hate incidents between March 2021 and March 2022.8

The harmful political rhetoric associating China with COVID-19 has contributed to this rise in incidents involving scapegoating language. Almost all scapegoating incidents in our dataset (2,161, or 96% of all scapegoating incidents) unfairly blame Asians and Asian Americans for the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 is only the latest in a long history of scapegoating Asians and Asian Americans for public health reasons (also known as “medical scapegoating”).

Further, we see two scapegoating narratives emerging in our data. First, we found 95 incidents (4% of all scapegoating incidents) where Asians or Asian Americans are blamed for national security reasons, alleging that community members are spies on behalf of the Chinese Communist Party. Second, we identified 15 incidents (1% of all scapegoating incidents) where Asian Americans are blamed for being economic threats who take away jobs from “real” Americans. With the global pandemic beginning to recede, we caution that the number of incidents involving national security or economic scapegoating can quickly escalate alongside current political rhetoric. In this report, we note historical parallels where Asians and Asian Americans were previously scapegoated for national security and economic reasons, resulting in violence and racial profiling.

This report builds on our previous research. In a series of reports in 2020 and 2021, we identified anti-Chinese scapegoating occurring in about one in five incidents reported to Stop AAPI Hate.9 A separate report reviewed tweets by politicians leading up to the 2020 election, and found that about one in 10 tweets about Asian Americans included racist or stigmatizing language, such as scapegoating.10

Politicians named China as the cause of COVID-19

Throughout the past two-and-a-half years of the pandemic, politicians blamed China as the source of COVID-19. In the early months, the Trump administration used “Chinese virus” or variants of that terminology11, even after the World Health Organization chose to name the virus “COVID-19” to avoid stigmatizing those connected to the geography where a virus emerges.”12

In April 2020, the National Republican Senatorial Committee issued the “Corona Big Book,” with talking points such as, “China did this. The Chinese Communist Party caused this pandemic.”13

And in June 2020, President Donald Trump began calling COVID-19 “kung flu” at campaign rallies.14

“China did this. The Chinese communist party caused this Pandemic.”

National Republican Senatorial Committee

And in June 2020, President Donald Trump began calling COVID-19 “kung flu” at campaign rallies.14

Two years later, politicians continue to blame China for COVID-19 in even more blunt terms. Shelley Luther, a candidate who ran for and lost the 2022 Republican primary for a Texas House seat, tweeted in January 2022, “China created a virus that killed hundreds of thousands of Americans.”15

In March 2022, Dr. Mehmet Oz, 2022 candidate for U.S. Senate in Pennsylvania tweeted, “CHINA GAVE US COVID.”16

Former President Trump continued to use the terminology “China Virus” to describe COVID-19 in a posting to his Truth Social platform in July 2022.17

Politicians naming China as the source of COVID-19 led to harm against Asians and Asian Americans

Throughout the past two-and-a-half years of the pandemic, politicians blamed China as the source of COVID-19. In the early months, the Trump administration used “Chinese virus” or variants of that terminology11, even after the World Health Organization chose to name the virus “COVID-19” to avoid stigmatizing those connected to the geography where a virus emerges.”12

In April 2020, the National Republican Senatorial Committee issued the “Corona Big Book,” with talking points such as, “China did this. The Chinese Communist Party caused this pandemic.”13

And in June 2020, President Donald Trump began calling COVID-19 “kung flu” at campaign rallies.14

Stranger pointed at me and my friend and told us that we were the ones responsible for bringing COVID to the U.S.

Washington

And in June 2020, President Donald Trump began calling COVID-19 “kung flu” at campaign rallies.14

Two years later, politicians continue to blame China for COVID-19 in even more blunt terms. Shelley Luther, a candidate who ran for and lost the 2022 Republican primary for a Texas House seat, tweeted in January 2022, “China created a virus that killed hundreds of thousands of Americans.”15

In March 2022, Dr. Mehmet Oz, 2022 candidate for U.S. Senate in Pennsylvania tweeted, “CHINA GAVE US COVID.”16

Former President Trump continued to use the terminology “China Virus” to describe COVID-19 in a posting to his Truth Social platform in July 2022.17

Asians and Asian Americans have long been public health scapegoats

Scapegoating for COVID-19 is not the first time that Asians and Asian Americans have been unfairly blamed for a health crisis. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Chinese populations in major American cities were scapegoated as carriers for smallpox, syphilis, bubonic plague, and other diseases, and became subject to race- driven quarantines and invasive inspections.21 In Honolulu, Hawaii, and Santa Ana, California, city officials started fires in their Chinatowns in the name of public health.22

“THE HOOKWORM IS DOING FOR CALIFORNIA WHAT IMMIGRATION COMMISSIONER HART NORTH FAILED TO DO.”

A San Francisco newspaper

From 1910 to 1940, immigrants from China, India, and other Asian countries faced public health scapegoating at Angel Island Immigration Station, the primary immigration processing center for immigrants from Asia. While Angel Island is best known for the extended detention of Chinese immigrants, the federal government also engaged in medical examinations that discouraged immigration from other countries.

For example, Angel Island’s chief medical officer required all Indian immigrants to be screened for hookworm. Those found to have hookworm were required to pay for treatment; the many who could not afford treatment were deported. While the policy was ostensibly to prevent the spread of disease, it was championed as a method to bar immigration from India. In 1910, a San Francisco newspaper celebrated the policy: “the hookworm is doing for California what Immigration Commissioner Hart North failed to do.”23

Decades after Chinese immigrants were blamed for smallpox and other diseases, public sentiment again targeted Asians and Asian Americans for SARS in 2003. In a national survey in April 2003, 14% of Americans reported avoiding Asian restaurants and stores as a result of SARS.24 In May 2003, 10% of the 7,303 calls to the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention expressed SARS-related fear, stigmatization, or discrimination of Asians and Asian Americans. For example, callers expressed fears of working with, living near, or going to school with Asian community members.25 These concerns were disproportionate to SARS’s real impact: only eight individuals in the United States were ever confirmed to have contracted SARS, and none of those cases resulted in death.26